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The ethics of care (alternatively 'care ethics' or 'EoC') is a normative ethical theory: a theory about what makes actions morally right or wrong. It is one of a cluster of normative ethical theories that were developed by feminists in the second half of the twentieth century. While consequentialist and deontological ethical theories emphasize universal standards and impartiality, ethics of care emphasize the importance of response. The shift in moral perspective is manifest by a change in the moral question from "what is just?" to "how to respond?"[1] Ethics of care criticize application of universal standards as "morally problematic, since it breeds moral blindness or indifference."[2]
Some beliefs of the theory are basic:
One of the founders of the ethics of care was American ethicist and psychologist Carol Gilligan. Gilligan was a student of developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. Gilligan developed her moral theory in contrast to her mentor's theory of stages of moral development. She held that measuring progress by Kohlberg's model resulted in boys being found to be more morally mature than girls, and this held for adult men and women as well (although when education is controlled for there are no gender differences).[3] Gilligan further argued that Kohlberg's model was not an objective scale of moral development. Other researchers, however, have found the scale to be psychometrically sound.[4] It displayed a particularly masculine perspective on morality, founded on justice and abstract duties or obligations.
Gilligan's In a Different Voice offered the perspective that men and women have tendencies to view morality in different terms. Her theory claimed women tended to emphasize empathy and compassion over the notions of morality that are privileged in Kohlberg's scale.[5] However, subsequent research confirms that the discrepancy in being oriented towards care-based or justice-based ethical approaches is not based on gender differences.[6]
Ethics of care contrasts with more well-known ethical views, such as consequentialist theories (e.g. utilitarianism) and deontological theories (e.g. Kantian ethics). This sort of outlook is what feminist critics call a 'justice view' of morality. A morality of care rests on the understanding of relationships as a response to another in their terms.
While some feminists have criticized care-based ethics for reinforcing traditional stereotypes of a “good woman”[7] others have embraced parts of this paradigm under the theoretical concept of care-focused feminism.[8]
Care-focused feminism is a branch of feminist thought, informed primarily by ethics of care as developed by Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings.[8] This body of theory is critical of how caring is socially engendered to women and consequently devalued. “Care-focused feminists regard women’s capacity for care as a human strength”[8] which can and should be taught to and expected of men as well as women. Noddings proposes that ethical caring has the potential to be a more concrete evaluative model of moral dilemma, than an ethic of justice.[9] Noddings’ care-focused feminism requires practical application of relational ethics, predicated on an ethic of care.[10]
Ethics of care is also a basis for care-focused feminist theorizing on maternal ethics. Critical of how society engenders caring labor, theorists Sara Ruddick, Virginia Held, and Eva Feder Kittay suggest caring should be performed and care givers valued in both public and private spheres.[11] Their theories recognize caring as an ethically relevant issue.[12] This proposed paradigm shift in ethics encourages that an ethic of caring be the social responsibility of both men and women.
Joan Tronto argues that the definition of the term "ethic of care" is ambiguous due in part to the lack of a central role it plays in moral theory.[13] She argues that considering moral philosophy is engaged with human goodness, then care would appear to assume a significant role in this type of philosophy.[13] However, this is not the case and Tronto further stresses the association between care and "naturalness". The latter term refers to the socially and culturally constructed gender roles where care is mainly assumed to be the role of the woman.[13] As such, care loses the power to take a central role in moral theory.
Tronto states there are four ethical elements of care:
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