Kartvelian languages

Genealogical tree

The connection between these languages was first reported in linguistic literature by J. Güldenstädt in his 1773 classification of the languages of the Caucasus, and later proven by G. Rosen, M. Brosset, F. Bopp and others during the 1840s. Zan is the branch that contains the Mingrelian and Laz languages.

On the basis of Zan to the 8th century BC,^[15] although with the reservation that such dating is very preliminary and substantial further study is required.^[14]

The older name "South Caucasian" is no longer much used, as it derives from the idea that Kartvelian is related to the Northwest Caucasian and Northeast Caucasian languages, a position which is no longer maintained.

Higher-level connections

No relationship with other languages, including the two Basque, especially in the case system, have often been pointed out. However, this hypothesis, which also tend to link the Caucasian languages with other non-Indo-European and non-Semitic languages of the Near East of ancient times, are generally considered to lack conclusive evidence.^[9] Any similarities to other linguistic phyla may be due to areal influences. Heavy borrowing in both directions (i.e. from North Caucasian to Kartvelian and vice versa) has been observed; therefore it is likely that certain grammatical features have been influenced as well. If the Dené–Caucasian hypothesis, which attempts to link Basque, Burushaski, the North Caucasian families and other phyla, is correct, then the similarities to Basque may also be due to these influences, however indirect. Certain Kartvelian-Indo-European lexical links are revealed at the protolanguage level,^[16] which are ascribed to the early contacts between Proto-Kartvelian and Proto-Indo-European populations.^[17]

Comparative grammar

Regular correspondences

Noun classification

The Kartvelian languages classify objects as intelligent ("who"-class) and unintelligent ("what"-class) beings. Grammatical gender does not exist.

Declension

Verb

Kartvelian verbs can indicate one, two, or three grammatical persons. A performer of an action is called the subject and affected persons are objects (direct or indirect). The person may be singular or plural. According to the number of persons, the verbs are classified as unipersonal, bipersonal or tripersonal.

• Unipersonal verbs have only a subject and so are always intransitive.
• Bipersonal verbs have a subject and one object, which can be direct or indirect. The verb is:
  • transitive when the object is direct;
  • intransitive if the object is indirect.
• Tripersonal verbs have one subject and both, direct and indirect objects and are ditransitive.

Subjects and objects are indicated with special affixes.

By means of special markers Kartvelian verbs can indicate four kinds of action intentionality ("version"):

• subjective — shows that the action is intended for oneself,
• objective — the action is intended for another person,
• objective-passive — the action is intended for another person and at the same time indicating the passiveness of subject,
• neutral — neutral with respect to intention.

Examples from inherited lexicon

See also

• Proto-Kartvelian language

Notes

References

• Boeder, W. (2002). Speech and thought representation in the Kartvelian (South Caucasian) languages. In: Güldemann, T., von Roncador, M. (Eds.), Reported Discourse. A Meeting-Ground of Different Linguistic Domains. Typological Studies in Language, vol. 52. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins, pp. 3–48. 
• Boeder, W. (2005). "The South Caucasian languages", Lingua, Vol. 115, Iss. 1-2 (Jan.-Feb.), Pages 5-89
• Dalby, A. (2002). Language in Danger; The Loss of Linguistic Diversity and the Threat to Our Future. Columbia University Press. 
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• Fähnrich, H. & Sardzhveladze, Z. (2000). Etymological Dictionary of the Kartvelian Languages (in Georgian). Tbilisi. 
• Gamkrelidze, Th. (1966) "A Typology of Common Kartvelian", Language, Vol. 42, No. 1 (Jan.–Mar.), pp. 69-83
• Gamkrelidze, Th. & Ivanov, V. (1995). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture. 2 Vols. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 
• Hewitt, B.G. (1995). Georgian: A Structural Reference Grammar. John Benjamins Publishing.  
• Kajaia, O. (2001). Megrelian-Georgian dictionary. Vol 1. (in Georgian). Tbilisi. 
• Kartozia, G. (2005). The Laz language and its place in the system of Kartvelian languages (in Georgian). Tbilisi. 
• Klimov, G. (1964). Etymological Dictionary of the Kartvelian Languages (in Russian). Moscow. 
• Klimov, G. (1994). Einführung in die kaukasische Sprachwissenschaft. Hamburg: Buske. 
• Klimov, G. (1998a). Etymological Dictionary of the Kartvelian Languages. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 
• Klimov, G. (1998b). Languages of the World: Caucasian languages (in Russian). Moscow: Academia. 
• Lang, D. M. (1966). The Georgians. New-York: Praeger. 
• Ruhlen, M. (1987). A Guide to the World’s Languages, Vol. 1: Classification.