Muhammad

s="reference">[283] Watt and Bernard Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam's development.^[284]^[285] Alford T. Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.^[15]

Other religious views

Bahá'ís venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "Manifestations of God", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahai faith.^[286]
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints neither regards Muhammad as a prophet nor accepts the Quran as a book of scripture. However, it does respect Muhammad as one who taught moral truths which can enlighten nations and bring a higher level of understanding to individuals.^[287]

Criticism

Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century. He has been attacked by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, as well as for his multiple marriages, possession of slaves and military expeditions across the Middle East.

Notes

^ The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community considers Muhammad to be the "Seal of the Prophets" (Khātam an-Nabiyyīn) and the last law-bearing Prophet but not the last Prophet. See:
- Simon Ross Valentine (2008). Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jama'at: History, Belief, Practice. Columbia University Press. p. 134.
- "Finality of Prophethood | Hadhrat Muhammad (PUBH) the Last Prophet".
^ There are smaller sects which too believe Muhammad to be not the last Prophet: The Nation of Islam considers Elijah Muhammad to be a prophet (source: African American Religious Leaders – Page 76, Jim Haskins, Kathleen Benson – 2008). United Submitters International consider Rashad Khalifa to be a prophet. (Source: Daniel Pipes, Miniatures: Views of Islamic and Middle Eastern Politics, page 98 (2004))
^ 'Islam' is always referred to in the Quran as a dīn, a word that means "way" or "path" in Arabic, but is usually translated in English as "religion" for the sake of convenience
^ S. A. Nigosian(2004), p. 6 The Encyclopaedia of Islam says that the Quran responds "constantly and often candidly to Muhammad's changing historical circumstances and contains a wealth of hidden data."
^ The aforementioned Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166.
^ "Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism."(The Cambridge companion to Muhammad, Jonathan E. Brockopp, p.35)
^ "Although, there could be some historical basis for the story, in its present form, it is certainly a later, exegetical fabrication. Sura LIII, 1-20 and the end of the sura are not a unity, as is claimed by the story, XXII, 52 is later than LIII, 2107 and is almost certainly Medinan; and several details of the story- the mosque, the sadjda, and others not mentioned in the short summary above do not belong to Meccan setting. Caetani and J. Burton have argued against the historicity of the story on other grounds, Caetani on the basis of week isnads, Burton concluded that the story was invented by jurists so that XXII 52 could serve as a Kuranic proof-text for their abrogation theories."("Kuran" in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition, Vol. 5 (1986), p. 404)

References

^ Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63, gives 8 June 632, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier (mainly non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the invasion of Palestine. See Stephen J. Shoemaker,The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad's Life and the Beginnings of Islam, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.
^ Quran 33:40
^ Morgan, Diane (2009). Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice. p. 101.
^ ^a ^b Esposito (1998), p. 12.
^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
^ Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 9.
^ Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 12.
^ ^a ^b Ann Goldman, Richard Hain, Stephen Liben (2006), p. 212
^ ^a ^b ^c
- Conrad, Lawrence I. (1987). "Abraha and Muhammad: some observations apropos of chronology and literary topoi in the early Arabic historical tradition1". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 50 (2): 225–240.
- Sherrard Beaumont Burnaby (1901). Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan calendars: with rules and tables and explanatory notes on the Julian and Gregorian calendars. G. Bell. p. 465.
^ ^a ^b Encyclopedia of World History (1998), p. 452
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p. 182
^ ^a ^b An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p. 184
^ F. E. Peters (2003), p. 9.
^ Esposito (1998), p. 12; (1999) p. 25; (2002) pp. 4–5
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj ^ak ^al ^am ^an Buhl, F.; Welch, A. T. (1993). "Muḥammad".
^ Sahih-Bukhari, Book 43, #658
^ Sahih Bukhari Book 59, #641
^ Hisham Ibn Al-Kalbi – The Book of Idols. Translated by Nabih Amin Faris. Princeton University Press, pg. 21–22
^ "Muhammad," Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world
^ ^a ^b See:
- Holt (1977a), p.57
- Lapidus (2002), pp 0.31 and 32
^ Watt (1974) p. 231
^ "Muhammad". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
^ Jean-Louis Déclais, Names of the Prophet, Encyclopedia of the Quran
^ ^a ^b ^c Uri Rubin, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ Ernst (2004), p. 80
^
^ Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.
^ Quran 17:106
^ Rippin, Andrew (2005). Muslims: their religious beliefs and practices. p. 45.
^ Clinton Bennett (1998). In search of Muhammad. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 18–19.
^ Francis E. Peters (1994). Muhammad and the origins of Islam. SUNY Press. p. 261.
^ ^a ^b Watt (1953), p.xi
^ Reeves (2003), pp. 6–7
^ ^a ^b S. A. Nigosian(2004), p. 6
^ Donner (1998), p. 132
^ Watt (1953), p.xv
^ ^a ^b Lewis (1993), pp. 33–34
^ Madelung (1997), pp.xi, 19 and 20
^ Watt (1953), pp.1–2
^ Watt (1953), pp. 16–18
^ Loyal Rue, Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological,2005, p.224
^ ^a ^b John Esposito, Islam, Expanded edition, Oxford University Press, p.4–5
^ See:
- Esposito, Islam, Extended Edition, Oxford University Press, pp.5–7
- Quran 3:95
^ Ueberweg, Friedrich. History of Philosophy, Vol. 1: From Thales to the Present Time. Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 409.
^ Kochler (1982), p.29
^ cf. Uri Rubin, Hanif, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ See:
- Louis Jacobs(1995), p.272
- Turner (2005), p.16
^ Esposito, John L. (ed.) (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. p. 198.
^ See also Quran 43:31 cited in EoI; Muhammad
^ Marr JS, Hubbard E, Cathey JT. (2014): The Year of the Elephant. figshare. http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.1186833 Retrieved 22:19, Oct 21, 2014 (GMT)
^ ^a ^b Watt (1974), p. 7.
^ Ali, Wijdan (1999),p. 3
^
^ ^a ^b Watt, "Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb", Encyclopaedia of Islam.
^ Watt, Amina, Encyclopaedia of Islam
^ ^a ^b ^c Watt (1974), p. 8.
^ Armand Abel, Bahira, Encyclopaedia of Islam
^ ^a ^b Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History (2005), v.3, p. 1025
^ Khan, Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad the final messenger (1998 ed.). India: Islamic Book Service. p. 332.
^ Esposito (1998), p. 6
^ Dairesi, Hırka-i Saadet; Aydın, Hilmi (2004). Uğurluel, Talha; Doğru, Ahmet, eds. The sacred trusts: Pavilion of the Sacred Relics, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul. Tughra Books.
^ Emory C. Bogle (1998), p.6
^ John Henry Haaren, Addison B. Poland (1904), p.83
^ Brown (2003), pp. 72–73
^ ^a ^b Wensinck, A.J.; Rippen, A. (2002). "Waḥy".
^ Esposito (2010), p.8
^ See:
- Emory C. Bogle (1998), p.7
- Razwy (1996), ch. 9
- Rodinson (2002), p. 71.
^ Quran 93:3
^ Brown (2003), pp. 73–74
^ Uri Rubin, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of the Quran
^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". Cmje.org. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 31.
^ Daniel C. Peterson, Good News, Encyclopedia of the Quran
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p. 185
^ ^a ^b Watt (1953), p. 86
^ Ramadan (2007), p. 37–9
^ ^a ^b ^c Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 36.
^ F. E. Peters (1994), p.169
^ ^a ^b ^c Uri Rubin, Quraysh, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an
^ Jonathan E. Brockopp, Slaves and Slavery, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ W. Arafat, Bilal b. Rabah, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Watt (1964) p. 76.
^ Peters (1999) p. 172.
^ "Muḥammad," Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs et al. Brill Online, 2014
^ The Cambridge companion to Muhammad (2010), p.35
^ "Kuran" in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition, Vol. 5 (1986), p. 404
^ "Muḥammad," Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs et al. Brill Online, 2014
^ Shahab Ahmed, "Satanic Verses" in the Encyclopedia of the Qur'an.
^ F. E. Peters (2003b), p. 96
^ ^a ^b ^c Moojan Momen (1985), p. 4
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.186
^ Oleg Grabar (1 October 2006). The Dome of the Rock. Harvard University Press. p. 14.
^ ^a ^b Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p. 482
^ Jonathan M. Bloom; Sheila Blair (2009). The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture. Oxford University Press. p. 76.
^ Sells, Michael. Ascension, Encyclopedia of the Quran.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p. 187
^ Watt (1974) p. 83
^ Peterson (2006), pp. 86–9
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 39
^ ^a ^b Esposito (1998), p. 17.
^ Moojan Momen (1985), p. 5
^ Watt (1956), p. 175.
^ Watt (1956), p. 177.
^ "Ali ibn Abitalib". Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 12 August 2007. Retrieved 25 October 2007.
^ Arthur John Arberry (1998). The Koran: interpreted. Oxford University Press. p. 37.
^ Fazlur Rahman (1979), p. 21
^ ^a ^b Lewis (2002), p. 41.
^ Watt (1961), p. 105.
^ ^a ^b ^c An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.188
^ John Kelsay (1993), p. 21
^ Watt(1961) p. 105, p. 107
^ Lewis (1993), p. 41.
^ ^a ^b William Montgomery Watt (7 February 1974). Muhammad: prophet and statesman. Oxford University Press. pp. 112–114.
^ Rodinson (2002), p. 164.
^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 45
^ Glubb (2002), pp. 179–186.
^ Watt (1961), p. 123.
^ Rodinson (2002), pp. 168–9.
^ An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.188 – 189
^ Lewis(2002), p. 44
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.189
^ Russ Rodgers, The Generalship of Muhammad: Battles and Campaigns of the Prophet of Allah (University Press of Florida; 2012) ch 1
^ ^a ^b Watt (1956), p. 178.
^ Watt (1956), p. 179.
^ Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007). The Historical Muhammad. John Wiley & Sons. p. 148.
^ Faizer, Rizwi (2010). The Life of Muhammad: Al-Waqidi's Kitab al-Maghazi. Routledge. p. 79.
^ F. E. Peters (25 July 2005). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition, Volume I: The Peoples of God. Princeton University Press. p. 88.
^ Watt (1961), p. 132.
^ Watt (1961), p. 134
^ ^a ^b Lewis (1960), p. 45.
^ C.F. Robinson, Uhud, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Watt (1964) p. 137
^ Watt (1974) p. 137
^ David Cook(2007), p.24
^ See:
- Watt (1981) p. 432;
- Watt (1964) p. 144.
^ ^a ^b Watt (1956), p. 30.
^ Watt (1956), p. 34
^ Watt (1956), p. 18
^ Rubin, Uri (1990). "The Assassination of Kaʿb b. al-Ashraf". Oriens 32 (1): 65–71.
^ Watt (1956), pp. 220–221
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.190
^ Watt (1956), p. 35
^ Watt (1956), p. 36, 37
^ See:
- Rodinson (2002), pp. 209–211;
- Watt (1964) p. 169
^ Watt (1964) pp. 170–172
^ Peterson(2007), p. 126
^ Ramadan (2007), p. 141
^ Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, p. 754.
^ Arafat, "New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1976, p. 100–107.
^ Ahmad, p. 85-94.
^ Nemoy, "Barakat Ahmad's "Muhammad and the Jews"", p. 325. Nemoy is sourcing Ahmad's Muhammad and the Jews.
^ Kister, "The Massacre of the Banu Quraiza".
^ Watt (1956), p. 39
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Watt, Aisha, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Learning Islam 8. Islamic Services Foundation. 2009. p. D14.
^ Quran 2:196–210
^ Lings (1987), p. 249
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Watt, al- Hudaybiya or al-Hudaybiyya Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Lewis (2002), p. 42.
^ ^a ^b ^c An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.191
^ Lings (1987), p. 255
^ Vaglieri, Khaybar, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ ^a ^b Lings (1987), p. 260
^ ^a ^b Khan (1998), pp. 250–251
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.273
^ F. Buhl, Muta, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Khan (1998), p. 274
^ ^a ^b ^c Lings (1987), p. 291
^ ^a ^b Khan (1998), pp. 274–5.
^ Lings (1987), p. 292
^ Watt (1956), p. 66.
^ ^a ^b ^c An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.274
^ The Message by Ayatullah Ja'far Subhani, chapter 48 referencing Sirah by Ibn Hisham, vol. II, page 409.
^ Rodinson (2002), p. 261.
^ Harold Wayne Ballard, Donald N. Penny, W. Glenn Jonas (2002), p.163
^ F. E. Peters (2003), p.240
^
^ Quran 110:1
^ Watt (1974), p.207
^ An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.275
^ ^a ^b ^c An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.276
^ M.A. al-Bakhit, Tabuk, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Ibn Ishaq (translated by Guillaume, A. 1955) The Life of Muhammad. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pg. pg. 916–918
^ Haykal, M.H. (1933) The Life of Muhammad, translated by Isma'il Razi A. al-Faruqi. The Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs, Cairo, Egypt & the University of Chicago.
^ Husayn, M.J. – Biography of Imam `Ali Ibn Abi-Talib, Translation of Sirat Amir Al-Mu'minin, Translated By: Sayyid Tahir Bilgrami, Ansariyan Publications, Qum, Islamic Republic of Iran
^ Lewis (1993), pp.43–44
^ Sultan, Sohaib (March 2011). The Koran For Dummies.
^ Devin J. Stewart, Farewell Pilgrimage, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ Al-Hibri (2003), p.17
^ An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.278
^ ^a ^b An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.279
^ See:
- Tabatabae, Tafsir Al-Mizan, volume 9, pages 227–247
- "Comparing the Tafsir of various exegetes". Tafseer Comparison. Archived from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2013.
^ ^a ^b The Last Prophet, page 3. By Lewis Lord of U.S. News & World Report. 7 April 2008.
^ Leila Ahmed (1986), 665–91 (686)
^ ^a ^b F. E. Peters(2003), p. 90
^ ^a ^b An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p. 281
^ Ariffin, Syed Ahmad Iskandar Syed (2005). Architectural Conservation in Islam: Case Study of the Prophet's Mosque. Penerbit UTM. p. 88.
^ "Prophet's Mosque". Archnet.org. 2 May 2005. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
^ "Isa", Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Shaykh Adil Al-Haqqani; Shaykh Hisham Kabbani (2002). The Path to Spiritual Excellence. ISCA. pp. 65–66.
^ ^a ^b Mark Weston (2008). Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 102–103.
^ ^a ^b Doris Behrens-Abouseif; Stephen Vernoit (2006). Islamic art in the 19th century: tradition, innovation, and eclecticism. BRILL. p. 22.
^ Mark Weston (2008). Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present. John Wiley and Sons. p. 136.
^ Vincent J. Cornell (2007). Voices of Islam: Voices of the spirit. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 84.
^ Carl W. Ernst (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 173–174.
^ Clinton Bennett (1998). In search of Muhammad. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 182–183.
^ Malcolm Clark (2011). Islam For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 165.
^ 8 Astonishing Photos of the Prophet Muhammad's Tomb (inside) Shafaqna.com
^ See:
- Holt (1977a), p.57
- Hourani (2003), p.22
- Lapidus (2002), p.32
- Esposito(1998), p.36
- Madelung (1996), p.43
^ Esposito (1998), p.35–36
^ Cambridge History of Islam (1970), p. 30.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lewis (1998)
^
- Watt (1974), p. 234
- Robinson (2004) p. 21
- Esposito (1998), p. 98
- R. Walzer, Ak̲h̲lāḳ, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
^ Islamic ethics, Encyclopedia of Ethics
^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 34
^ Esposito (1998), p. 30
^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 52
^
^ Annemarie Schimmel (1985). And Muhammad is his messenger: the veneration of the Prophet in Islamic piety. University of North Carolina Press. p. 34.
^ ^a ^b Omid Safi (17 November 2009). Memories of Muhammad: why the Prophet matters. HarperCollins. pp. 273–274.
^ See for example Marco Schöller, Banu Qurayza, Encyclopedia of the Quran mentioning the differing accounts of the status of Rayhana
^ ^a ^b Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Wives of the Prophet, Encyclopedia of the Quran
^ Subhani, Jafar. "Chapter 9". The Message. Ansariyan Publications, Qom.
^ Esposito (1998), p. 18
^ Bullough (1998), p. 119
^ Reeves (2003), p. 46
^ ^a ^b ^c D. A. Spellberg, Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994, p. 40
^ Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet, Harper San Francisco, 1992, p. 145.
^ Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: Prophet For Our Time, HarperPress, 2006, p. 105.
^ Muhammad Husayn Haykal, The Life of Muhammad, North American Trust Publications (1976), p. 139
^ Barlas (2002), p.125-126
^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:58:234, Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:58:236, Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:62:64, Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:62:65, Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:62:88, Sahih Muslim, 8:3309, 8:3310, 8:3311, 41:4915, Sunan Abu Dawood, 41:4917
^ Tabari, Volume 9, Page 131; Tabari, Volume 7, Page 7
^ "The Concept of Polygamy and the Prophet's Marriages (Chapter: The Other Wives)".
^
^ Ayatollah Qazvini. "Ayesha married the Prophet when she was young? (In Persian and Arabic)".
^ Momen (1985), p.9
^ Tariq Ramadan (2007), p. 168–9
^ Asma Barlas (2002), p. 125
^ Armstrong (1992), p. 157
^ ^a ^b Nicholas Awde (2000), p.10
^ Ordoni (1990) pp. 32, 42–44.
^ "Ali". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya recorded the list of some names of Muhammad's female-slaves in Zad al-Ma'ad, Part I, p. 116
^ 'Human Rights in Islam'. Published by The Islamic Foundation (1976) – Leicester, U.K
^ Farah (1994), p.135
^ Clark, Malcolm (2003). Islam for Dummies.
^ Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices.
^ Juan E. Campo, ed. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam.
^ "Muhammad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
^ ^a ^b Denis Gril, Miracles, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ A.J. Wensinck, Muʿd̲j̲iza, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Daniel Martin Varisco, Moon, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
^ Muhammad, Encyclopædia Britannica, p.9
^ J. Schacht, Fiḳh, Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Muhammad, Encyclopædia Britannica, p.11–12
^ "Arabic Presentation Forms-A" (PDF). The Unicode Standard, Version 5.2. Mountain View, Ca.: Unicode, Inc. 1 October 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
^ Suzanne Pinckney Stetkevych (24 May 2010). The mantle odes: Arabic praise poems to the Prophet Muḥammad. Indiana University Press. p. xii.
^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Encyclopædia Britannica, Muhammad, p.13
^ ^a ^b ^c Kees Wagtendonk (1987). "Images in Islam". In Dirk van der Plas. Effigies dei: essays on the history of religions. BRILL. pp. 119–124.
^ John L. Esposito (2011). What everyone needs to know about Islam (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15.
^ ^a ^b F. E. Peters (10 November 2010). Jesus and Muhammad: Parallel Tracks, Parallel Lives. Oxford University Press. pp. 159–161.
^ Safi2010 (2 November 2010). 2 November 2010. HarperCollins. p. 32.
^ ^a ^b ^c
^ ^a ^b ^c Freek L. Bakker (15 September 2009). The challenge of the silver screen: an analysis of the cinematic portraits of Jesus, Rama, Buddha and Muhammad. BRILL. pp. 207–209.
^ Christiane Gruber (2009). "Between Logos (Kalima) and Light (Nur): Representations of the Muslim Prophet Muhammad in Islamic Painting". In Gulru Necipoglu. Muqarnas 26. BRILL. pp. 234–235.
^ ^a ^b ^c Johan Elverskog (2010). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 167.
^ Johan Elverskog (2010). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 164–169.
^ Christiane Gruber (2011). "When Nubuvvat encounters Valayat: Safavid painting of the "Prophet" Mohammad's Mi'raj, c. 1500–50". In Pedram Khosronejad. The Art and Material Culture of Iranian Shi'ism: Iconography and Religious Devotion in Shi'i Islam. I. B. Tauris. pp. 46–47.
^ Elizabeth Edwards; Kaushik Bhaumik (2008). Visual sense: a cultural reader. Berg. p. 344.
^ D. Fairchild Ruggles (2011). Islamic Art and Visual Culture: An Anthology of Sources. John Wiley and Sons. p. 56.
^ ^a ^b Ali Boozari (2010). "Persian illustrated lithographed books on the miʻrāj: improving children's Shi'i beliefs in the Qajar period". In Christiane J. Gruber and Frederick Stephen Colby. The Prophet's ascension: cross-cultural encounters with the Islamic mi'rāj tales. Indiana University Press. pp. 252–254.
^ Stillman, Norman (1979).
^ "Mohammed and Mohammedanism", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1913
^ Walter Emil Kaegi, Jr., "Initial Byzantine Reactions to the Arab Conquest", Church History, Vol. 38, No. 2 (June 1969), p. 139-149, p. 139-142, quoting from Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptizati 86–87
^ Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 10th edition (1970), p.112.
^ Said, Edward W (2003). Orientalism. Penguin. p. 68.
^ Warraq, Ibn (2007). Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism. New York: Prometheus. p. 27.
^ Lewis (2002)
^ Carlyle, Thomas (1841). On heroes, hero worship and the heroic in history. London: James Fraser. p. 87.
^ Watt, Bell (1995) p. 18
^ Watt (1974), p. 232
^ Watt (1974), p. 17
^ Watt, The Cambridge history of Islam, p. 37
^ Lewis (1993), p. 45.
^ Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. p. 251.
^ James A. Toronto (August 2000). "A Latter-day Saint Perspective on Muhammad". Ensign. Retrieved 28 December 2013.

Bibliography

Ahmed, Leila (Summer 1986). "Women and the Advent of Islam".
Wijdan, Ali (23–28 August 1999). "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th century Ottoman Art".
Awde, Nicholas (2000). Women in Islam: An Anthology from the Quran and Hadith. Routledge.
Ballard, Harold Wayne; Donald N. Penny; W. Glenn Jonas (2002). A Journey of Faith: An Introduction to Christianity. Mercer University Press.
Brockopp, Jonathan E., ed. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge University Press.
Brown, Daniel (2003). A New Introduction to Islam. Blackwell Publishing Professional.
Dakake, Maria Massi (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. SUNY Press.
Esposito, John (1999). The Islamic Threat: Myth Or Reality?. Oxford University Press.
Esposito, John (2002). What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam. Oxford University Press.
Goldman, Ann; Richard Hain; Stephen Liben (2006). Oxford Textbook of Palliative Care for Children. Oxford University Press.
Haaren, John Henry; Addison B. Poland (1904). Famous Men of the Middle Ages. University Publishing Company.
Al-Hibri, Azizah Y. (2003). "An Islamic Perspective on Domestic Violence". 27 Fordham International Law Journal 195.
Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Larsson, Göran (2003). Ibn Garcia's Shu'Ubiyya Letter: Ethnic and Theological Tensions in Medieval Al-Andalus. Brill Academic Publishers.
Lewis, Bernard (21 January 1998). "Islamic Revolution". The New York Review of Books.
US edn. by Inner Traditions International, Ltd.
Neusner, Jacob (2003). God's Rule: The Politics of World Religions. Georgetown University Press.
Ordoni, Abu Muhammad; Muhammad Kazim Qazwini (1992).
Peters, Francis Edward (2003b). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition. Princeton University Press.
Peters, F. E. (1991). "
Razwi, Ali Asgher (1997). A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims. World Federation of K S I Muslim Communities Islamic Centre.
Robinson, David (2004). Muslim Societies in African History. Cambridge University Press.
Serin, Muhittin (1998). Hattat Aziz Efendi. Istanbul.
Sikand, Yoginder (2004). Muslims in India since 1947: Islamic perspectives on inter-faith relations. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
Teed, Peter (1992). A Dictionary of Twentieth Century History. Oxford University Press.
Turner, Colin (2005). Islam: The Basics. Routledge.
(New edition 1974)
Watt, W. Montgomery (1956).
Watt, W. Montgomery (1953).

Encyclopedias

William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group.
Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books.
P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis,
Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference Books.
Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. (2005).
Encyclopedia of World History. Oxford University Press. 1998.
The New Encyclopædia Britannica (Rev ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated. 2005.

External links

Works by or about Muhammad in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

Other biographies

Muhammad, article on Encyclopædia Britannica Online
Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet — PBS Site

Quranic prophets

آدم	إدريس	نوح	هود	صالح	إبراهيم	لوط	إسماعيل

Adam Adam	Idris Enoch (?)	Nuh Noah	Hud Eber (?)	Saleh Salah (?)	Ibrahim Abraham	Lut Lot	Ismail Ishmael

إسحاق	يعقوب	يوسف	أيوب	شُعيب	موسى	هارون	ذو الكفل	داود

Is'haq Isaac	Yaqub Jacob	Yusuf Joseph	Ayyub Job	Shuayb Jethro (?)	Musa Moses	Harun Aaron	Dhul-Kifl Ezekiel (?)	Daud David

سليمان	إلياس	إليسع	يونس	زكريا	يحيى	عيسى	مُحمد

Sulaiman Solomon	Ilyas Elijah	Al-Yasa Elisha	Yunus Jonah	Zakaria Zechariah	Yahya John	Isa Jesus	Muhammad Muhammad

Note: Muslims believe that there were many prophets sent by God to mankind. The Islamic prophets above are only the ones mentioned by name in the Quran.

People and things in the Quran

Characters

God in Islam (Allah)

Names of God found in the Quran

Angels

Jinns

Iblīs/Devil or Shaitan/Satan
Ifrit

In Heaven (Jannah)

Prophets and
apostles
(messengers)
of God

Mentioned	Ādam/Adam Alyasa'/Elisha Ayyub/Job Dawud/David Dhul-Kifl/Ezekiel? Harun/Aaron Hud/Eber? Ibrahim/Abraham (Khalilullah) Idris/Enoch? Ilyas/Elijah Imran/Joachim (father of Maryam) Isa/Jesus Isḥaq/Isaac Isma'il/Ishmael Dhabih Ullah Isma'il the Truthful (Sadiq-al-Wa'd) Lut/Lot Muhammad or Ahmad/Paraclete Musa/Moses (Kalimullah) Nuh/Noah Saleh/Shelah? Shu'aib/Jethro (Reuel, Hobab)? Sulayman/Solomon Uzair/Ezra? Yahya/John the Baptist Yaqub/Jacob (Israel) Yunus/Jonah (Dhul-Nun, Sahib al-Hut) Yūsuf/Joseph Zakariya/Zechariah

Implicitly mentioned	Ermia/Jeremiah Samuel Yusha' ibn Nūn/Joshua

Good people
(before Islam)

Mentioned	Dhul-Qarnayn Luqman Maryam/Mary (mother of Isa) Talut/Saul

Implicitly mentioned	Asiyah bint Muzahim/Bithiah? (wife of Fir'aun) Asif ibn Barkhiya Bilquis (Queen of Saba/Sheba) Believer of Fir'aun Family (Hizbil/Hizqil ibn Sabura) Beniamin/Benjamin Habib the Carpenter (believer of Ya-Sin) Kaleb/Caleb Khidr Magicians of Fir'aun Simon Cephas/Simon Peter

Other people
(before Islam)

Mentioned	Āzar (uncle of Ibrahim) Fir'aun/Pharaoh Haman Jalut/Goliath Qarun/Korah Sāmiri/Zimri?

Implicitly mentioned	Abraha Bal'am/Balaam Barsisa Nebuchadnezzar II Nimrod Potiphar (Al-Aziz) Shaddad Simeon (son of Ya'qub) Slayers of Saleh's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif & Musda' ibn Dahr) Valid ibn Rayyan (king of Egypt in the account of Yūsuf) Zuleika (wife of al-Aziz)

Mentioned people
(after Islam)

Relatives
of prophets

Specified good relatives	Daughters of Lut/Lot (Ritha, Za'ura, et al.) Elizabeth or 'Ishā' (wife of Zakariya) Habil/Abel (son of Adam) Hawwa'/Eve (wife of Adam) Kulthum/Miriam (sister of Musa) Saffurah/Zipporah (wife of Musa) & Layya (Saffura's sister) Sarah (wife of Ibrahim, mother of Isḥaq) Yukabed/Jochebed (mother of Musa)

Non-specified good relatives	Abiona/Amtelai daughter of Karnebo (mother of Ibrahim) Bathsheba (wife of Dawud) Daughters of Muhammad Hājar/Hagar (wife of Ibrahim, mother of Isma'il) Hannah/Anne daughter of Faquz (mother of Maryam) Imran/Amram (father of Musa) Lamech (father of Nuh) Rāhil/Rachel (wife of Ya'qub) Rahma/Dinah (wife of Ayyub) Shamkha bint Anush/Betenos (mother of Nuh) Son of Luqman

Other relatives	Brothers of Yūsuf Children of Ayyub Dead son of Sulaiman Muhammad's wives Qabil/Cain? (son of Adam) Tārah/Terah (father of Ibrahim) Umm Jamil (wife of Abu Lahab) Wali'ah or Wa'ilah/Waala? (wife of Nuh) Walihah or Wahilah (wife of Lut) Yam or Kan'an (son of Nuh)

Groups and tribes

Tribes and
ethnicities

Mentioned	'Ād (people of Hud) Arab & Ajam Children of Israel/Israelites Companions of the Rass People of Saba'/Sheba People of Shu'aib (people of Madyan & people of Aykah/Wood) People of Tubba' Quraysh Romans Thamud (people of Saleh, companions of Hijr) Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog

Implicitly mentioned	Ahl al-Bayt Amalek Banu Hashim Banu Nadir Banu Qaynuqa Banu Qurayza Iranian people Umayyad Dynasty

Groups

Mentioned	Christian apostles Disciples of Jesus Companions of Noah's Ark Companions of Sabbath (Aşḥāb al-Sabt) Companions of the Cave/Seven Sleepers & Companions of al-Raqaim Companions of the Elephant People of al-Ukhdūd People of the City (People of Ya-Sin) People of the Burned Garden (Aşḥāb al-Jannah) Ulu'l azm prophets

Implicitly mentioned	Ahl al-Suffa (People of the Verandah) Aus & Khazraj Copts Hezbollah Muhajirun (The emigrants) & Ansar (The helpers) Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad)

Religious groups	Ahl al-dhimmah (Dhimmi) Christians (People of Injil) Jews Kafir (Infidels) Majus Zoroastrians Munafiq Hypocrites Mushrik Polytheists Muslims People of the Book (‎′Ahl al-Kitāb) Sabians Ahbār (Jewish scholars) Qissis (Christian priest) Rabbani/Rabbi Ruhban (Christian monks)

Locations, entities and events

Locations

Mentioned	Ahqāf Al-Aqsa Mosque Arafat & Mash'ar al-Harām Bābil/Babylon Badr Door of Hittah Hijr/Hegra Holy Land (Palestine & Levant) Hunayn Iram Ka'bah/Kaaba (Bayt al-Harām/Sacred House, Bayt al-'Atīq/Ancient House) Madyan/Midian Madinah/Medina (formerly Yathrib) Majma' al-Bahrain Makkah/Mecca (Umm al-Qura, Balad al-Amin, Bakkah) Maqām Ibrahim Masjid al-Dirar Masjid al-Haram Mount Judi Mu'tafikat (Sodom) Rass Saba'/Sheba Al-Safa and Al-Marwah Tur Sinā' /Mount Sinai & Jabal al-Tur Egypt Valley of Tuwa

Implicitly mentioned	Antioch Antakya Ayla Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha Black Stone (Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il Canaan Cave of Hira & Cave of Thawr Cave of Seven Sleepers Dār al-Nadwa Hudaybiyyah Jordan River Ma'rib Dam Masjid al-Nabawi (Prophet's Mosque) Mesopotamia Nile River Nineveh Palestine River Paradise of Shaddad Quba Mosque Sinai Desert & Tīh Desert Ta'if

Religious locations	Bay'a (Church) Mihrab Monastery Mosque Salat (Synagogue)

Non-human
physical
entities

Religious texts	Injil/Gospel Quran Suhuf-i Ibrahim (Scrolls of Abraham) Tawrat/Torah, Suhuf-i-Musa (Scrolls of Moses) & Tablets of Stone Zabur

Related animals	Cow of Israelites & Golden calf Dog of Seven Sleepers Fish of Yunis Hoopoe of Sulayman She-Camel of Saleh

Related objects	Forbidden fruit of Adam Heavenly Food of Christian Apostles Noah's Ark Staff of Musa Tabut al-Sakina (Casket of Shekhinah) Throne of Bilqis Trumpet of Israfil

Mentioned idols (cult images)	Baal Lāt, 'Uzza & Manāt Wadd, Suwa', Yaghuth, Ya'uq & Nasr (Jibt & Taghut Ansāb)

Events

Note: The names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Bibilical name (title or relationship)

Muhammad's ancestors

Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusai ibn Kilab ibn Murrah ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr ibn Malik ibn An-Nadr ibn Kinanah ibn Khuzaymah ibn Mudrikah ibn Ilyas ibn Mudhar ibn Nizar ibn Ma'ad ibn Adnan

Family of Muhammad

			Hashim ibn 'Abd Manaf

		Abdul-Muttalib

			Salma bint Amr

	Abdullah

			Amr ibn A'ez

		Fatimah

			Sakhra bint Abd

Muhammad

			Abd Manaf ibn Zuhrah

		Wahb

			Atikah bint Al Awqas

	Aminah

			Abdul Uzza ibn Othman

		Barrah

			Um Habib bint Assad

Islam topics

Beliefs	God in Islam Tawhid Muhammad Prophets of Islam

Five Pillars	Shahada Salat Sawm Zakat Hajj

History Leaders	Timeline of Muslim history Conquests Golden Age Ahl al-Bayt Sahaba Shi'a Imams Caliphates Rashidun Umayyad Abbasid Córdoba Fatimid Ottoman Empire Historiography

Religious texts	Quran Sunnah Hadith

Denominations	Sunni Shia Muwahhid Sufism Ibadi Quranism Ahmadiyya Non-denominational Muslims Nation of Islam (NOI)

Life Culture	Animals Art Calendar Children Holidays Mosques Philosophy Political aspects Science medieval Women Islam by country

Economics	Banking Economic history Sukuk Takaful Murabaha Riba

Hygiene	Ghusl Miswak Najis Tayammum Toilet Wudu

Marriage Sex	Marriage contract Mahr Mahram Masturbation Nikah Nikah Mut‘ah Zina

Other aspects	Cleanliness Criminal Dhabiĥa Dhimmi Divorce Diet Ethics Etiquette Gambling Gender segregation Honorifics Hudud Inheritance Jizya Leadership Ma malakat aymanukum Military POWs Slavery Sources of law Theological baligh kalam

Islamic studies

Arts	Arabesque Architecture Calligraphy Music Pottery

Medieval science	Alchemy and chemistry Astronomy Mathematics Medicine Physics

Philosophy	Early Contemporary Eschatology Theological

Other areas	Astrology Creationism Economics Feminism Inventions Literature poetry Psychology Shu'ubiyya Sports Conversion to mosques

Other religions	Christianity Hinduism Jainism Judaism Sikhism

Related topics	Apostasy Criticism of Islam Criticism of Muhammad Criticism of the Quran Cultural Muslim Islamism Islamophobia Islamic terrorism Islamic view of miracles Islam and antisemitism Domestic violence Nursing Persecution of Muslims Quran and miracles Qutbism

Social and political philosophy

Philosophers	Alinsky Aristotle Augustine Aurobindo Aquinas Averroes Azurmendi Badiou Bakunin Baudrillard Benoist Bentham Berlin Bonald Bosanquet Burke Camus Chanakya Chomsky Cicero Comte Confucius Debord Đilas Durkheim Engels Foucault Fourier Gandhi Gehlen Gentile Al-Ghazali Gramsci Grotius Habermas Han Fei Hobbes Hume Kant Kirk Kropotkin Le Bon Le Play Leibniz Locke Luxemburg Machiavelli Maistre Malebranche Marcuse Maritain Marsilius Marx Mencius Michels Mill Montesquieu Möser Mozi Muhammad Negri Nietzsche Nozick Oakeshott Ortega Pareto Plamenatz Plato Popper Rand Rawls Renan Rousseau Royce Russell Santayana Sarkar Sartre Schmitt Searle Shang Smith Sombart Spann Spencer Spirito Stirner Strauss Taine Taylor Thoreau Vivekananda Walzer Žižek

Social theories	Vaisheshika Anarchism Authoritarianism Collectivism Communism Communitarianism Conflict theories Confucianism Consensus theory Conservatism Contractualism Gandhism Individualism Legalism Liberalism Libertarianism Mohism National liberalism Social constructionism Social constructivism Social Darwinism Social determinism Socialism Utilitarianism

Social concepts	Civil disobedience Democracy Four occupations Justice Law Mandate of Heaven Peace Property Revolution Rights Social contract Society War more...

Related articles	Jurisprudence Philosophy and economics Philosophy of education Philosophy of history Philosophy of love Philosophy of sex Philosophy of social science Social epistemology

Category Portal

Authority control	WorldCat VIAF: 97245226 LCCN: n79130881 ISNI: 0000 0001 2103 2851 GND: 118583158 SELIBR: 195602 SUDOC: 029179238 BNF: cb12085994z (data) NLA: 35367089 NDL: 00621048 NKC: jn20000701276 BNE: XX1012281

This article was sourced from Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. World Heritage Encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers, Open Access Publishing, and in compliance with The Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act (FASTR), Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Public Library of Science, The Encyclopedia of Life, Open Book Publishers (OBP), PubMed, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, and USA.gov, which sources content from all federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial government publication portals (.gov, .mil, .edu). Funding for USA.gov and content contributors is made possible from the U.S. Congress, E-Government Act of 2002.

Crowd sourced content that is contributed to World Heritage Encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles.

By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. World Heritage Encyclopedia™ is a registered trademark of the World Public Library Association, a non-profit organization.

Muhammad

Muhammad

Other religious views

Criticism

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Encyclopedias

Further reading

External links

Other biographies

Categories

Quran

Encyclopedia Article

Islam

Encyclopedia Article

Islamic philosophy

Encyclopedia Article

Encyclopaedia of Islam

Encyclopedia Article

Nation of Islam

Encyclopedia Article

Suggestions

History of Islam

Encyclopedia Article

Early scholars of Islam

Encyclopedia Article

Islamic ethics

Encyclopedia Article

Fiqh

Encyclopedia Article

Islam

Encyclopedia Article